The mysterious Mandinka saber

[Pertinax]

Changdao provided a brilliant overview of the region from the 12th to the 18th centuries. But as we know, all empires have phases of rise and decline: some disappear, and new ones arise.

We have surviving examples of sabers called "Mandinka," dating from the late 19th to early 20th centuries. During this period, the Mandinka region and related tribes were in decline. According to 19th-century travelers, they practiced primitive agriculture and had primitive industry, including metalworking.

As I wrote above, in 1904 these territories became a French colony. The year 1897 proved fateful for the neighboring region, the Sokoto Caliphate. In January and February, a small, well-armed force, equipped by the British Royal Nigerian Company, invaded and destroyed the strategic southwestern emirates of Nupe and Ilorin, Adamawa and Kano in 1901, and Sokoto in 1903. However, after the Berlin Conference of 1884, the entire continent was colonized, leaving Liberia and Ethiopia as the only sovereign states in sub-Saharan Africa.

I've selected sabers that were freely available from the internet and offer them for discussion.

All the presented specimens date from the late 19th to early 20th centuries. The overall length ranges from 74 to 82 cm, and the blade length from 60 to 76 cm.

Almost all the blades are from European cavalry and infantry sabers. Judging by their overall length, these are blades with broken hilts. Based on this, one can conclude that these are not commercial trade supplies, but blades that accidentally ended up in the hands of good craftsmen for reworking.

The brass pommels of each specimen are different, but executed with great skill and taste. The same can be said for the leather work. The high-quality leather handles and scabbards are truly works of art. All this testifies to the presence of well-established handicraft industries, rather than isolated artisans.

I have no data on the existence of such industries in Malinke, but my neighbors did. Read J.P. Smaldone's "Warfare in the Sokoto Caliphate":

Page 139
This centralizing effect of war is clearly shown also in the organization of the various craft industries in the nineteenth century. In each emirate the craft industries operated under direct state control, each craft being organized under a chief responsible for quality and price control, tax collection, and production for the needs of the emir. The leather industry provided saddles, shields, sheaths, quivers, horse trappings, and baggage cases. Blacksmiths made swords, spearheads and arrowheads, horse trappings, flintlocks and shot for the gunmen; brass workers produced more exquisite and expensive varieties of these items. The weaving industry prepared "uniforms," blankets, tents, baggage, and suits of lifidi. As Nadel has written of Nupe, this organization of the craft industries amounts to a full control of the political system over all the more important industries
. . . this control was dictated by the needs of the state: based on constant warfare, committed to uphold the splendour of a huge court, the political system has to guarantee a dependable, uninterrupted supply of all that is needed - arms, tools, clothes, saddles, as well as the many symbols of wealth and status.

Looking at these specimens, one might speculate that these are not combat sabers. Ceremonial, status symbols, merchandise for tourists?

As always, questions, questions, questions...

[Changdao]

Originally Posted by Pertinax

Changdao provided a brilliant overview of the region from the 12th to the 18th centuries. But as we know, all empires have phases of rise and decline: some disappear, and new ones arise.

We have surviving examples of sabers called "Mandinka," dating from the late 19th to early 20th centuries. During this period, the Mandinka region and related tribes were in decline. According to 19th-century travelers, they practiced primitive agriculture and had primitive industry, including metalworking.

As I wrote above, in 1904 these territories became a French colony. The year 1897 proved fateful for the neighboring region, the Sokoto Caliphate. In January and February, a small, well-armed force, equipped by the British Royal Nigerian Company, invaded and destroyed the strategic southwestern emirates of Nupe and Ilorin, Adamawa and Kano in 1901, and Sokoto in 1903. However, after the Berlin Conference of 1884, the entire continent was colonized, leaving Liberia and Ethiopia as the only sovereign states in sub-Saharan Africa.

I've selected sabers that were freely available from the internet and offer them for discussion.

All the presented specimens date from the late 19th to early 20th centuries. The overall length ranges from 74 to 82 cm, and the blade length from 60 to 76 cm.

Almost all the blades are from European cavalry and infantry sabers. Judging by their overall length, these are blades with broken hilts. Based on this, one can conclude that these are not commercial trade supplies, but blades that accidentally ended up in the hands of good craftsmen for reworking.

The brass pommels of each specimen are different, but executed with great skill and taste. The same can be said for the leather work. The high-quality leather handles and scabbards are truly works of art. All this testifies to the presence of well-established handicraft industries, rather than isolated artisans.

I have no data on the existence of such industries in Malinke, but my neighbors did. Read J.P. Smaldone's "Warfare in the Sokoto Caliphate":

Page 139
This centralizing effect of war is clearly shown also in the organization of the various craft industries in the nineteenth century. In each emirate the craft industries operated under direct state control, each craft being organized under a chief responsible for quality and price control, tax collection, and production for the needs of the emir. The leather industry provided saddles, shields, sheaths, quivers, horse trappings, and baggage cases. Blacksmiths made swords, spearheads and arrowheads, horse trappings, flintlocks and shot for the gunmen; brass workers produced more exquisite and expensive varieties of these items. The weaving industry prepared "uniforms," blankets, tents, baggage, and suits of lifidi. As Nadel has written of Nupe, this organization of the craft industries amounts to a full control of the political system over all the more important industries
. . . this control was dictated by the needs of the state: based on constant warfare, committed to uphold the splendour of a huge court, the political system has to guarantee a dependable, uninterrupted supply of all that is needed - arms, tools, clothes, saddles, as well as the many symbols of wealth and status.

Looking at these specimens, one might speculate that these are not combat sabers. Ceremonial, status symbols, merchandise for tourists?

As always, questions, questions, questions...

The disintegration of the great states of the Western Sahel during the late 16th and 17th centuries was definitely important in the history of these sabers. However, the collective use in this expansive and politically fragmented region nods to the earlier shared traditions of warfare. In the wake of the fall of Songhay, Mali and Djolof, chaos engulfed the Senegal and Niger regions. The states in modern Senegal, Wolof, Serer, Mandinka and Fula, became increasingly decentralized and broken up, with the Fula state of Denianke becoming an hegemon for the 1500's and 1600's before falling itself.

The fall of Songhay left the Middle Niger in utter chaos, with the Arma entrenched on the major cities (Gao, Timbuktu), the Tuareg ruling the deserts, Walata, and occassionally Timbuktu, and the Bambara forming warbands that ransacked the land and eventually coalesced in small chiefdoms led by warrior-chiefs. The Bambara eventually formed a state centered on Segou with the Fulbe of Massina as vassals, until they became independent in the late 18th century.

On the side of Mali, there was a total disintegration after their defeat at Djenne and the death of Mansa Mahmud IV. Kaniaga, which was the traditionally important faran-sura and had been functionally independent (and under Songhay suzerainty for a time), reasserted its independence. Concho, the most powerful state of the southwest ruling over Futa Djallon and the Susu states, and the sankara-zuma, also became independent. Kaabu, on the Gambia, was free of Malian rule and started a frenzied expansion in its region, surviving until the late 19th century. On the south, three Malian successor states splintered and divided between themselves the new Mandinka core. The trading outposts linking Mali with the Gold Coast also became independent, and eventually Kong rose up.

Functionally, this period affected the interior of West Africa in some similar ways as the fall of the Western Roman Empire did in Europe.


Regarding opinions of industrial era Europeans, one must be careful because they offer them in strong contraposition to their own capabilities. This was an era of machined tools and Bessemer steel, with machine guns, smokeless powder and self-loading rifles. Their own swords would have been made industrially. In that light, the techniques they encountered were primitive, but so would have been those used to forge a longsword in 15th century France. In a similar light, it is usual to see European spectator comment on how the natives "don't know how to fence" and how their swords are "poorly balanced". Of course, what they mean is that they are not very good to fence military saber style, which is rather obvious. Also, there's the point of the enormous regional diversity in crafting prowess, much like everywhere in the pre-modern world. Some African tools and weapons are very crudely made, but you also find Samory Ture's artisans being able to manufacture small amounts of functional Kropatschek-like rifles without machining tools.

Regarding the antique examples posted, I would say that all the top row look like they have European saber blades, and the second from the left on the bottom obviously has a machete blades. The others I'd say are of local manufacture. As to their use, neither of those is mutually exclusive. Swords are multidimensional objects, that have a use in combat but also a social and aesthetic value and symbolism. But they were used in war, even in very late dates when most West African soldiers would have been using a gun of some kind.

As an illustration, here is an engraving from 1868 depicting a battle between Bambara and Umar Tall's Fulani

[Jim McDougall]

Guys, I just wanted to thank you both so much for all this material, illustrations, examples you have both provided. Changdao, your specialized and comprehensive knowledge of these tribal peoples and their history is phenomenal, and Yuri your research skills are well shown in augmenting detail.

This is exactly the kinds of results I have always been so grateful to see here on these pages, as it is all focused on the discussion of a weapon form or its associated contexts, and to learn from them.

Truly brilliant! I have had my single example of the Mandinka saber for decades, and never knew much about it as little was ever covered on them in the circulating references.
It is a mystery no more!!!

Thank you again,
Jim

[Pertinax]

[QUOTE=Jim McDougall;299949]

Truly brilliant! I have had my single example of the Mandinka saber for decades, and never knew much about it as little was ever covered on them in the circulating references.
It is a mystery no more!!!

Jim, you're too early to celebrate!
It's just the beginning!

[Jim McDougall]

[QUOTE=Pertinax;299957]

Originally Posted by Jim McDougall

Truly brilliant! I have had my single example of the Mandinka saber for decades, and never knew much about it as little was ever covered on them in the circulating references.
It is a mystery no more!!!

Jim, you're too early to celebrate!
It's just the beginning!

Sounds good! ROCK ON!!!

[Pertinax]

Originally Posted by Changdao

The disintegration of the great states of the Western Sahel during the late 16th and 17th centuries was definitely important in the history of these sabers. However, the collective use in this expansive and politically fragmented region nods to the earlier shared traditions of warfare. In the wake of the fall of Songhay, Mali and Djolof, chaos engulfed the Senegal and Niger regions. The states in modern Senegal, Wolof, Serer, Mandinka and Fula, became increasingly decentralized and broken up, with the Fula state of Denianke becoming an hegemon for the 1500's and 1600's before falling itself.

The fall of Songhay left the Middle Niger in utter chaos, with the Arma entrenched on the major cities (Gao, Timbuktu), the Tuareg ruling the deserts, Walata, and occassionally Timbuktu, and the Bambara forming warbands that ransacked the land and eventually coalesced in small chiefdoms led by warrior-chiefs. The Bambara eventually formed a state centered on Segou with the Fulbe of Massina as vassals, until they became independent in the late 18th century.

On the side of Mali, there was a total disintegration after their defeat at Djenne and the death of Mansa Mahmud IV. Kaniaga, which was the traditionally important faran-sura and had been functionally independent (and under Songhay suzerainty for a time), reasserted its independence. Concho, the most powerful state of the southwest ruling over Futa Djallon and the Susu states, and the sankara-zuma, also became independent. Kaabu, on the Gambia, was free of Malian rule and started a frenzied expansion in its region, surviving until the late 19th century. On the south, three Malian successor states splintered and divided between themselves the new Mandinka core. The trading outposts linking Mali with the Gold Coast also became independent, and eventually Kong rose up.

Functionally, this period affected the interior of West Africa in some similar ways as the fall of the Western Roman Empire did in Europe.


Regarding opinions of industrial era Europeans, one must be careful because they offer them in strong contraposition to their own capabilities. This was an era of machined tools and Bessemer steel, with machine guns, smokeless powder and self-loading rifles. Their own swords would have been made industrially. In that light, the techniques they encountered were primitive, but so would have been those used to forge a longsword in 15th century France. In a similar light, it is usual to see European spectator comment on how the natives "don't know how to fence" and how their swords are "poorly balanced". Of course, what they mean is that they are not very good to fence military saber style, which is rather obvious. Also, there's the point of the enormous regional diversity in crafting prowess, much like everywhere in the pre-modern world. Some African tools and weapons are very crudely made, but you also find Samory Ture's artisans being able to manufacture small amounts of functional Kropatschek-like rifles without machining tools.

Regarding the antique examples posted, I would say that all the top row look like they have European saber blades, and the second from the left on the bottom obviously has a machete blades. The others I'd say are of local manufacture. As to their use, neither of those is mutually exclusive. Swords are multidimensional objects, that have a use in combat but also a social and aesthetic value and symbolism. But they were used in war, even in very late dates when most West African soldiers would have been using a gun of some kind.

As an illustration, here is an engraving from 1868 depicting a battle between Bambara and Umar Tall's Fulani

Thanks to Changdao for this very important information.

But I would like to discuss specifically the "Mandinka" sabers, which date to the late 19th - early 20th centuries.

I have the following questions:

1. The production of the specimens shown in the photo involved various crafts—blacksmiths, tanners, coppersmiths (this is not the work of a lone artisan), similar to the Blacksmith Market (A. Suq al Haddad) in Kassala described in Edwin Hanley's brilliant essay. Where could such production have taken place at that time?

2. I rightly mentioned the Berlin Conference of 1884 and the colonization of Africa by the early 20th century. Did the colonizers in the occupied territories allow local residents to make swords and sabers?

All this calls into question the dating of these specimens.

Finally, the presence of such richly decorated scabbards calls into question the use of these sabers in combat.

Sincerely,
Yuri

[Changdao]

Originally Posted by Pertinax

Thanks to Changdao for this very important information.

But I would like to discuss specifically the "Mandinka" sabers, which date to the late 19th - early 20th centuries.

I have the following questions:

1. The production of the specimens shown in the photo involved various crafts—blacksmiths, tanners, coppersmiths (this is not the work of a lone artisan), similar to the Blacksmith Market (A. Suq al Haddad) in Kassala described in Edwin Hanley's brilliant essay. Where could such production have taken place at that time?

2. I rightly mentioned the Berlin Conference of 1884 and the colonization of Africa by the early 20th century. Did the colonizers in the occupied territories allow local residents to make swords and sabers?

All this calls into question the dating of these specimens.

Finally, the presence of such richly decorated scabbards calls into question the use of these sabers in combat.

Sincerely,
Yuri

Those certainly are interesting questions.

Regarding 1, in traditional Mandinka society there is a tripartite hereditary division between horon or free farmers (from which the "noblemen" and headmen come from), nyamakala or specialized professionals, and slaves (who could become freemen, or their descendants could). Amongst the specialized professionals we find leather workers (garankew, and they claim Soninke origins), wood carvers, bards, and metalworkers or numuw (that also do pottery in the female side of the clans). They are integrated into wider Mande society, but one would find greater agglomerations of them, capable of more complex and specialized work, in large villages and urban areas. Some areas in particular have greater concentrations of metalworkers than others, but every single town had (and still had in the 20th century) at least a blacksmith family. Their workspaces are invariably in these towns, and most have three to five families of metalworkers living there. Smelting furnaces were, however, located outside of town and operated jointly by the local smith communities.

Here I am working from The Mande blacksmiths : knowledge, power, and art in West Africa

Regarding the scabbards, I don't see why being ornate would make them unfit for combat. Lavish decoration on weaponry has been a feature of warfare everywhere since prehistory, and when individuals could afford some bling on their gear they almost invariably did so. Besides, in 19th century engravings where they appear one can sometimes spot these leather decorations.

[Pertinax]

Originally Posted by Changdao

Those certainly are interesting questions.

Regarding 1, in traditional Mandinka society there is a tripartite hereditary division between horon or free farmers (from which the "noblemen" and headmen come from), nyamakala or specialized professionals, and slaves (who could become freemen, or their descendants could). Amongst the specialized professionals we find leather workers (garankew, and they claim Soninke origins), wood carvers, bards, and metalworkers or numuw (that also do pottery in the female side of the clans). They are integrated into wider Mande society, but one would find greater agglomerations of them, capable of more complex and specialized work, in large villages and urban areas. Some areas in particular have greater concentrations of metalworkers than others, but every single town had (and still had in the 20th century) at least a blacksmith family. Their workspaces are invariably in these towns, and most have three to five families of metalworkers living there. Smelting furnaces were, however, located outside of town and operated jointly by the local smith communities.

Here I am working from The Mande blacksmiths : knowledge, power, and art in West Africa

Regarding the scabbards, I don't see why being ornate would make them unfit for combat. Lavish decoration on weaponry has been a feature of warfare everywhere since prehistory, and when individuals could afford some bling on their gear they almost invariably did so. Besides, in 19th century engravings where they appear one can sometimes spot these leather decorations.

A new book about African history, that's fantastic! I wish you creative success!

Regarding trinkets on weapons:

Firstly, they are a hindrance in real combat. A combat weapon should be functional and simple. Trust me, I have experience, unfortunately, and I have.

Secondly, they are expensive. When examining the copper pommels of the hilts, I initially thought they were lathe-made, but after enlarging the images, I realized they were cast. Moreover, each saber is individually cast. Making fancy scabbards and "trinkets" also takes time and material costs. This is all acceptable when fulfilling a custom order from a wealthy client or if the item is being made for sale, but not for military use. For example, in January 1861, Massina's army was mobilized under the command of Ba Lobbo, consisting of 8,000 cavalry, 5,000 infantry, and 1,000 musketeers. In engravings of warriors from old books, sabers are prominent, displayed as a symbol of power and wealth. An immediate analogy comes to mind: paintings of military leaders with all their decorations, always with an ornate saber or rapier, or photos of officers from photo salons—dress uniforms and always with a fine saber.

After the fashion for "Indian rooms" emerged in Europe and Russia in the 19th century, talwars and other exotic "weapons" began to be forged en masse in Indian bazaars. A similar situation arose in the 20th century with African weaponry: exotic items began to be mass-produced for sale in all regions of Africa; demand creates supply.

In my opinion, one must be very cautious when dating African weaponry. Items with "iron" provenance, such as the one Jim presented (the specimen that belonged to Governor Gallieni), are extremely rare. The history of Africa remains poorly understood, leaving many gaps. This is due to the lack of a written language, the large number of different peoples and tribes, their migrations, the rise and fall of empires, and the inconsistency of accounts from the few travelers who managed to penetrate the region. And, of course, the vast, expansive territories.

Unscrupulous dealers exploit all of this to inflate prices, misrepresenting the age and origin of objects. Each object must be considered in relation to a specific region and the historical events that took place there. This is an important factor in understanding the context of a work when determining its authenticity, value, and uniqueness.

I repeat, the book you are working on will be invaluable for gaining new knowledge.

Sorry for such a long passage, I just wanted to share something that has been bothering me.

Sincerely,
Yuri

P.S. Please share which book the engraving is from - Guerrier toucouleur.

[Changdao]

Originally Posted by Pertinax

A new book about African history, that's fantastic! I wish you creative success!

Regarding trinkets on weapons:

Firstly, they are a hindrance in real combat. A combat weapon should be functional and simple. Trust me, I have experience, unfortunately, and I have.

Secondly, they are expensive. When examining the copper pommels of the hilts, I initially thought they were lathe-made, but after enlarging the images, I realized they were cast. Moreover, each saber is individually cast. Making fancy scabbards and "trinkets" also takes time and material costs. This is all acceptable when fulfilling a custom order from a wealthy client or if the item is being made for sale, but not for military use. For example, in January 1861, Massina's army was mobilized under the command of Ba Lobbo, consisting of 8,000 cavalry, 5,000 infantry, and 1,000 musketeers. In engravings of warriors from old books, sabers are prominent, displayed as a symbol of power and wealth. An immediate analogy comes to mind: paintings of military leaders with all their decorations, always with an ornate saber or rapier, or photos of officers from photo salons—dress uniforms and always with a fine saber.

But they are functional and simple weapons. The unsheathed swords are pretty spartan, except for the quality of the leatherwork, that varies a lot. And there is also variation in how much decoration they have on the scabbards. Some just have a bunch of leather strands, and others have much more. That's not going to be a hindrance in combat. Besides, cavalrymen and officers (on horse) usually can afford to carry more ornate decorations in their panoply, but infantry also do. Plumed crests for helmets in Greece and Rome, horns in Bronze Age helmets, the lavishly ornate Celtiberian weapons, the luxurious Sassanid swords and the textile bells they hang in their horses' barding, Medieval European decorated helmets, bejewelded swords and armor, the beautiful Renaissance plate armor sets, samurai scabbards with fur decorations at the end and their decorated helmets...

Those paintings and photos of officers showing off their status through weapons show a reality that also manifested on the battlefield; they went to war armed in the most spectacular fashion they could afford. Sure, coral hilted swords for example were exclusively civilian, but there's a difference between that and a gilded hilt. The European contemporaries of these antique examples also carried swords in Africa: the troopers were given plain sabers, but the officers often purchased and carried more ornate things such as non-regulation pattern blades, engraving and etching on the blades, custom hilts, etc. And then top officers carried even more luxurious objects that were part of their attire (ceremonial in a way), but perfectly capable of being used in earnest in a dire spot.

As for the second point, how does a copper or brass pommel make them expensive? West African warriors had a very old tradition of carrying copper bracelets and torques. These were no more in the 19th century (but they still used gris-gris), but those supposed a much greater amount of metal. On the whole, these would be rather cheap swords (keeping in mind that not everyone had one, so some wealth would be necessary). And these were not mass-produced by a state-owned arsenal to equip warriors on the cheap, they were bought by the soldiers themselves out of their pocket.

And these sabers were not necessarily the go to for the highest status swords in Mandinka society. You also have the straight shortswords and daggers that have much more complex and expensive materials and style for the hilt. These are rare in 19th century art, but the only example I know of is carried by a Mandinka chief of the Gambia.

Originally Posted by Pertinax

After the fashion for "Indian rooms" emerged in Europe and Russia in the 19th century, talwars and other exotic "weapons" began to be forged en masse in Indian bazaars. A similar situation arose in the 20th century with African weaponry: exotic items began to be mass-produced for sale in all regions of Africa; demand creates supply.

In my opinion, one must be very cautious when dating African weaponry. Items with "iron" provenance, such as the one Jim presented (the specimen that belonged to Governor Gallieni), are extremely rare. The history of Africa remains poorly understood, leaving many gaps. This is due to the lack of a written language, the large number of different peoples and tribes, their migrations, the rise and fall of empires, and the inconsistency of accounts from the few travelers who managed to penetrate the region. And, of course, the vast, expansive territories.

Unscrupulous dealers exploit all of this to inflate prices, misrepresenting the age and origin of objects. Each object must be considered in relation to a specific region and the historical events that took place there. This is an important factor in understanding the context of a work when determining its authenticity, value, and uniqueness.

I repeat, the book you are working on will be invaluable for gaining new knowledge.

Sorry for such a long passage, I just wanted to share something that has been bothering me.

Sincerely,
Yuri

P.S. Please share which book the engraving is from - Guerrier toucouleur.

Agreed entirely.

P.S. I do not know exactly from where the engraving comes from.